(1982) Social Research Ethics: An Examination of the Merits of Covert Participant Observation, London: Macmillan. Reflexivity and realism It is true that we cannot avoid relying on common-sense knowledge nor, often, can we avoid having an effect on the social phenomena we study. The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology, Oxford: Blackwell. This confidence is well founded to the degree that the different kinds of data have different likely directions of error built into them. (1988b), Studies in Qualitative Methodology, vol. In doing this, we will focus at a practical level: on what ethnographers actually, In terms of data collection, ethnography usually involves the researcher participating, overtly or covertly, in peoples daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or asking questions through informal and formal interviews, collecting documents and artefacts in fact, gathering whatever data are available to throw light on the issues that are the emerging focus of inquiry. Tracy: He ad me mum up the school, telling her what a horrible child I was. 262 References Simons, H. and Usher, R. (eds) (2000) Situated Ethics in Educational Research, London: Routledge Falmer. And like all the other resources, it is to be used in a disciplined manner. The naivete of the question, and the political dimensions of my work, were noted quickly by his response: No, I couldnt do that. It can sometimes be strange and disorienting for people in the setting to find that the ethnographer is no longer going to be a part of their everyday world. (1991) A critique of the use of triangulation in social research, Quality and Quantity, 25, 2: 11536 Bloor, M. (1978) On the analysis of observational data: a discussion of the worth and uses of inductive techniques and respondent validation, Sociology, 12, 3: 54552. Nevertheless, the trade-off between data collection and data recording must be recognized and resolved, in accordance with the overall research strategy and purpose. 3. Now there is no doubt that change has occurred and will continue to take place. Temple, B. and Young, A. He went on to suggest that something is really happening in my life. Indeed, Labaree (2002) suggests that even in research where an insider role is taken on, there is a danger of going observationalist. . (Wallis 1977: 1578) Scientologists also wrote to the body which was funding Walliss research, complaining of his unethical behaviour and threatening legal action. We chatted casually for a few minutes, then I started asking him some ethnographic questions. They want something doing and we have to sort of do it, cos, er, er, were just, were under them like. Ten years, in a Grammar and then a Comprehensive. Much of the interviewers attention will be taken up with recording what has been said rather than thinking about it. One problem here is that the return rates of such forms are not usually high: and this is not always because parents are unwilling to give consent but rather that the forms get forgotten or lost. (ed.) However, the experience of the stranger is not restricted to those moving to live in another society. Our aim here is not to try to produce a definitive map of ethnographic styles, nor to suggest that each ethnography should be located within one or other genre. Prologue to the third edition xi 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41EEE The most visible preachers of novelty and change have been Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). (2002) Contemporary Art and the Home, Oxford: Berg. For these reasons, what constitutes harm is a matter of judgement and may be contentious. Saturday nights would probably be characterized by very different rates and patterns of admission from Monday nights, and so on. And it is not an easy one, or one that can be made successfully at the beginning of the writing process. The individual scholar does not create his or her discipline afresh. Within settings of work, for example, one should be able to identify different genres of personal story and anecdote: atrocity stories, especially those recounting ghastly blunders, are often circulated in order to socialize novices into an occupational or local culture (Dingwall 1977a; Hafferty 1988). Foucault argues that different regimes of truth are established in different contexts, reflecting the play of diverse sources of power and resistance. In combination, they provide a mode of organizing the text that is faithful to a style of analysis that stresses processes of becoming, of process, and of moral careers. (1995). Even when the ethnographer is acting as observer, he or she may be an important audience for the participants, or at least for some of them. He sought to dress in a way that would allow him to blend in with the inhabitants of the skid rows he visited. So, analysis is not just a matter of managing and manipulating data. and Geoffrey, W. (1968) Complexities of the Urban Classroom: An Analysis Towards a General Theory of Teaching, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Burgess (ed.) Douglas (1976) generalizes this argument, claiming that conventional views about the ethics of social research are based on a defective theory of society, one which assumes a moral consensus and widespread conformity to that consensus. and the professional type of women active in the more secular conservative groups . We will discuss two commonly mentioned strategies here: respondent validation and triangulation (see Seale 1999). The volume offers a systematic introduction to ethnographic principles and practice, and includes a new chapter on 'Ethnography in the digital world'. For instance, in her study of a womens prison, Giallombardo (1966) documents the following collection of labels that the prisoners themselves use to categorize themselves: snitchers, inmate cops, and lieutenants; squares, jive bitches; rap buddies, homeys; connects, boosters; pinners; penitentiary turnouts, lesbians, femmes, stud broads, tricks, commissary hustlers, chippies, kick partners, cherries, punks, and turnabouts. Up to now we have referred primarily to issues relating to fieldwork in organizations and the like. in the 5 Grounded theorizing is discussed in Chapter 8. Maines, D.R. more lining up all the time. Whether fieldnotes can be written at all, how, and covering what issues, depends on the nature of the research, the setting(s) in which fieldwork occurs, and the role(s) taken on by the ethnographer.1 1 For detailed guidance about the production of fieldnotes, see Emerson et al. In much the same way, a subculture such as that of bikers (McDonaldWalker 2000) depends on local significance being attached to particular objects and events. Multiple copies of the data are made, and each segment of the data is stored in folders representing all the categories to which it is deemed relevant. Denzin, N.K. Ethnography in digital spaces Digital technology has expanded our very notion of what constitutes a field. He had absolutely no intention of going on to the hospital wards looking like this. Other documents can be bought or otherwise acquired. What is significant in cases such as these, of course, is not just whether the information published and publicized is true, but what implications it carries, or what implications it may be taken to carry, about the people studied and others like them. James, N. and Busher, H. (2006) Credibility, authenticity and voice: dilemmas in online interviewing, Qualitative Research, 6, 3: 40320. At the other end of the spectrum, today research training is a major enterprise in which key skills and essential knowledge are identified and must be inculcated before novices enter the field. The origins of the term lie in nineteenth-century Western anthropology, where an ethnography was a descriptive account of a community or culture, usually one located outside the West. Ethnography can be combined with the development of a system prototype (Figure 4). (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, 2nd edn, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. (Whyte 1953: 1617) As we indicated, interviewing in ethnography is by no means always non-directive. These particular working-class boys describe themselves as lads and distinguish themselves from those they call earoles, who subscribe to the values of the school. . Malinowskis classic anthropological research among the Trobrianders included a close reading of the building of a canoe, and how the practical construction work simultaneously evoked and aligned cooperative social relations. Nor was that night spent peacefully. There are, too, a large number of first-hand accounts published by less politically eminent folk, including those drawn from the criminal underworld, and the realms of sports and entertainment. In other words, it is not only that we can never get access to reality, but also that the reality that ethnographers document is no less a construction than the accounts produced by the people that they study. The Ethics of Educational Research, Lewes, UK: Falmer. (1985a) Issues in Educational Research: Qualitative Methods, Lewes, UK: Falmer. But in most of the social sciences (with the obvious exception of social anthropology) ethnography was a distinctly minority interest. and Lynd, H.M. (1937) Middletown in Transition, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Narratives In recent decades some social scientists have become increasingly preoccupied with the structure and functions of narrative. As we have noted, interviews and conversations are important aspects of all fieldwork, but they cannot substitute for proper observation and examination of socially organized action. (1969) Cognitive Anthropology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Gatekeepers or other powerful figures in the field sometimes attempt to select interviewees for the ethnographer. In this way, natural 13 There is some ambiguity in Kuhns work, and this has led to disputes about its interpretation. Abstract Features include the selection and sampling of cases, the problems of access, observation and interviewing, recording and filing data, and the process of data analysis. Before going to the bath house he consulted a gay friend who frequented it: From this conversation, I saw no major problems ahead and laid some tentative research plans. Vrasidas, C. (2001) Interpretivism and symbolic interactionism: Making the familiar strange and interesting again in educational technology research, in W. Heinecke and J. Willis (eds) Research Methods in Educational Technology, Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. If we were interested, however, in what happened during the course of a run when a small group of people started shooting speed intravenously, it meant that one or two fieldworkers had to be present at the beginning and be relieved periodically by other members of the team until the run was over. Burawoy, M. (2005) Presidential address: For public sociology, American Sociological Review, 70, 1: 428. In a literate culture, it is possible to draw on all sorts of documents, both those generated independently of the research as well as ones specifically elicited by the researcher. Furthermore, being helpful to participants will not always be appreciated, as OReilly (2005) found in her study of British expatriates on the Costa del Sol. It was the method itself, participant observation, that became the key for making this research affordable. 7980, 867 subcultures 168 subjectivity 97, 98 substantive theory 25, 26, 28, 1889 Sudarkasa, N. 678 Sudnow, D. 130 surveillance 13, 15, 43, 51, 203 surveys 16, 234 survivalists 6970, 934 suspicion 634 symbolic interactionism 2, 78, 166, 167, 168 synecdoche 198 talk 1701 Taylor, S. 512, 177, 211 team research 1834 technology 134, 1379, 140, 147, 149, 154, 2068 telephone interviews 117 theoretical sampling 33, 107 theoretical triangulation 165 theory 21, 1589, 163; comparative method 1858; grounded theorizing 158, 166, 167; theoretical sampling 33; theory-building 1556; types of 1889 Thomas, M. 30, 41 Thomas, P.A. Maxwell, J.A. 4 An alternative strategy, of course, is to provide informants with audio-recorders that they can use to record day-to-day events, their own thoughts and feelings, and so on. Chagnon, N.A. At this point the individual told me about something that he had not done. Denzin, N.K. If a man sets out on an expedition, determined to prove certain hypotheses, if he is incapable of changing his views constantly and casting them off ungrudgingly under the pressure of evidence, needless to say his work will be worthless. Some commentators have suggested that it is the ideal to which researchers should aim (Jules-Rosette 1978a, 1978b; Ferrell and Hamm 1998). outside research, initially these problems seemed to be major stumbling blocks. This was an important factor in Cannons (1992) research: One day I had what I experienced as a particularly bad interview with Katherine, with whom I felt I had built a good deal of rapport and understanding . Stein (eds) Reflections on Community Studies, New York: Wiley. I primarily focused on major cities in the Western part of the United States, later adding cities in other areas during subsequent travels. The reconstruction of such trajectories is a powerful way of ordering ethnographic analyses. He used it to characterize key features that are common to such institutions as prisons, mental hospitals, military establishments, monastic foundations, boarding schools and the like. Similarly, there is no finally correct way to store information or to retrieve it for analysis. It provides a somewhat idealized version of the language. Having gained access to the Edinburgh Medical School, for instance, Atkinson (1976, 1981a) went to see one of the influential gatekeepers for an informal chat about the actual fieldwork. She examines, for instance, the idiomatic use of Shitamachi and Yamanote: literally, different parts of Tokyo, used to convey different orientations, lifestyles and identities. (1967) The Social Meanings of Suicide, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Equally important, documents may be of value in stimulating analytic ideas. In this chapter we have rather assumed that accounts take an exclusively oral form. There is no intrinsic difference between the slow exchange of written communication and the instant exchange of electronic messages. Jules-Rosette, B. . . 82, 85, 86 Kaplan, I.M. This paper is based on an organizational ethnography study (Pedersen & Humle, 2016) done between 2015 and 2017 concentrating on the establishment of the cardiac Day Unit.

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